Information Systems Applications - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 20 Words: 5898 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Information Management and Systems It is defined as the discipline that covers several applications including people,procedures and technologies.these a ppliocations aree collectively reffered to as information systems. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Information Systems Applications" essay for you Create order Information Systems Management(ISM) are distinct from the normal information systems in the sense that they are capable of analyzing other information sytems that are apllied in operational activities of an organization.It is a planned system of perfoming collection,storingand dissemination of data in the form of the required information for carrying out necessary management functions. In the academic world the term is used to refer to,a group of information management methods twined to the automation of human decision making.Such systems include;Expert Systems,excecutive information Systems and Decicion Support Systems. ISM includes the application of Information Technology in support of major functions and activities in an organization or institution.ISM supports processes of:Storage,collection,manipulation,utilization and distribution of information resources of an organization.Manual processes are also included in an information system.This term is used as a synonym for information that are computer-based. Information systems will often deal with dockets such as use,development and management of an organizations information technology infrastructure. It includes systems that are not intended for decision making Currently the focus of companies has shifted from product oriented to information oriented.this means that there is more competition in process and innovation,by market operators, rather than product.There is much emphasis on the production process and services that accompanies the process of production. One of the most valued asset of a company is its information.This calls for a very strong information infrastructure.Therefore the study of information systems is keen on why and how technology can be put into excellent use in service to information flow within an organization. A great majority of information systems are developed for people.This peole employ the same in various areas including functional areas such as;human resource,marketing,finance,accounting etc.ISM professionals require a strong mixture of both technical and business knowledge for them to develop an information system that meets the needs of an organization. They must understand organizations objectives,its structures,operations and financial implications that are relative to these factors.Good understanding of these factors will give the ISM professionals a good base for effective communication with users before designing systems that will support their needs.It is also a good attribute of an ISM manager or professional to be updated with the evolving information technologies.They should posses a strong foundation of technical skills so as to select appropriate technologies and implementation of computer based information system. OVERVIEW In the current workplace,it is definite that technology works both effectively and reliably.ISM professionals have a key role in implementing technology within organizations. Infomation Systems Managers plan,network,and direct research and facilitate all computer related duties of firms.They are functional in determining both business and technical goals during consultation with the top management.They make detailed plans in accomplishing these goals.They give directions to other computer related workers e.g computer programmers,system analysts etc.They also aid in planning and coordinating activities like installation and upgrading of hardware and software,developing computer networks,implementation of internet and intranet sites and systems designing.They are involved with upkeep,security and mantainance of networks.They have a role in analyzing the computer and information needs of the organizations they work with from a strategic and operational persp[ective.Hence determining the longrange personnel and equipment requirements.Their duties also include assigning and reviewing their surbodinates work.They are also supposed to ensure that their organizat ions do not lag behind competitors. INFORMATION NEEDS End users of a system have different information needs depending on what he/she is trying to find,why she/he is trying to find and when she/he is trying to find the information.An example is the design of a staff directory,where there is an assumption that most users will be able to perfoam known item searching.Thet the user knows exactly what he is looking for,e.g Kerrys phone number.He has necessary terms to articulate the need,e.g he knows Kerrys second name is Brown and thats what he will search under.And finally he knows that that staff directory exists and that its the right place to look. Identification of information needs is important in designing an information system and to the provision of relative information services.For effective identification of information needs one has to identify the different methods for gathering information on various factors influencing those needs.A selection depending on the needs of the user is necessary.A step by step procedure is necessary in identifying information needs of most users.a careful analysis is to be made to distinguish the actual needs from the data gathered. The information needs identifierwill be able to discover, as a bye product, several ideas, tools, methods and techniques of satisfying the users in meeting their needs.At present,insufficient self sufficiency constitutes information needs. These information needs represent vacuums in the current knowledge of the enduser. Besides the expressed or articulated needs, there exists unexpressed needs which the user is aware of but will not like to express. The other category of need is the dormant need which the user is not aware of. But the information services provider might be able to bring to light these needs . A need is specific.It is generally time bound,either immediate or deferred.Information provided for a need will be used.Information provided may also be used or may not be used. Information needs depend on: Area of interest Hierarchical position of individuals work activity need to take a decision Availability of facilities. Need to seek new ideas Motivation factors for information needs Need to establish priority for recovery etc Information needs are also affected by a variety of factors including: The consequences of information Range of information sources available Background,professional,motivational orientation Uses of which information will be used. The social, political, economic, legal and regulatory systems surrounding the user Information needs identification is also somewhat a complex process. Some of the factors rendering it complex include: Original documents needed by researchers Individual preferences and behavioural aspects add a further dimension. Same information is perceived differently by users Information is put to different uses Need is satisfied by having access to the identified information in a particular package and form, and at a suitable time The flow of information and channels of communication are complex and add to the complexity The main steps in the process of identifying information needs is shown below: Studying the subject(s) of interest to the organization and or User(s Studying the organisation and its environs Studying the immediate environment of the User(s) Studying the User(s) Performing a formal interview Identifying and recording of the information needs Analysing and refining the identified information needs. Preparation for identifying information needs A very undefined situation is faced maybe only by the information professionals. They are unable to prescribe the required information to their clientele in the way the other professionals like physicians prescribe.Such prescriptions have a final say and authority, and which are embraced by the clients.Prescription is authoritative mainly because the clients of physicians and other professionals are seeking advice in a field which they themselves are ignorant of. But the clients of information professionals are more often specialists in the areas they seek information and professional advice. The main reason why there are difficulties experienced by the information professionals in distinguishing the wishes or the desires from the actual needs of the users . Therefore the information professional has to prepare himself/ herself in such a way as to create confidence in the users about his/ her professional capabilities. It will also be important if the investigation of information nee ds is to be successful, it is above all good to bear in mind that the person chosen to be the information needs identifier will need to be acceptable at all levels of users and have credibility. most guidelines in the form of a step by step procedure to identify information needs is presented incorporating the steps to be taken by the information system adentifier to equip himself/ herself for this investigative work. Study of subjects An information needs identifier must study the subjects of interest to the organization,users, and identify the central, peripheral and supporting areas.The result of such a study would produce a handbook on the subject to guide further work of identifying the information needs. This handbook is not a technical manual for technical personnel but a handy tool for the information professional. Such a handbook would present a birds eye view of the subject giving the following : Definitions of the subject concerned, collected from different authoritative sources bringing out the similarities and differences; scope of the subject giving definitions and scope of divisions and subdivisions; scope of the subjects that are tool subjects applicable to the subject concerned for its development; and scope of the subject in terms of the areas/subjects where the subject concerned is applied for their development. The different types of classification of the subject concerned including special subject classifications, taxonomic classifications, general document classifications, and vocabulary control tools such as thesaurus. The historical development of the subject giving the landmarks (significant contributions) under the broad divisions and subdivisions; the trend of research in the subject concerned as revealed in review documents marking out the broad areas in which current researches are in progress; and the trend of education and training in the subject concerne d. The important sources of information such as documentary sources , institutional sources and human sources; and the information transfer process among the users of information on the subject. After carrying out such a study of subject the Information Needs Identifier becomes confident enough to continue the work of identifying the information needs as he is exposed to the technical terminology and structure of the subject. Study the organization and its environment This is the second step in studying the organisation and its environment and preparing a profile for the organisation. Here, it is helpful for the information need identifier to know the type of the organisation for example, whether it is a corporate office, business or industrial enterprise and also differentiate whether it is public sector or private sector government or non government organisation, profit making or not for profit organisation, so as to identify the different types and styles of management and decision making processes which have a bearing on the information needs. As for this purpose, the information need identifier has to study the overall objectives, functions and the factors that affect the functions of the organisation concerned. Hence the organizations chart, the functions/ activities chart, annual reports, project reports, internal reports and other publications of the organisation would have to be studied. It will be of benefit to the information need ident ifier to attend special training courses/ orientation programmes usually organised for the benefit of new employees/ entrants/ management trainees by the organisation. The training courses are usually in the form of a series of lectures by senior personnel in the organisation spread over a period of three to six months. It would cover all subjects relating to the work of the organisation the basic scientific and technical background and detailed aspects of the engineering and technology of production. Further the participants would be taken to the different divisions of the organisation for observation and practical knowledge of the different items of work. Further, the environment in which the organisation works and its impact would have to be analysed. An information need identifier may have to study the super ordinate organisation, its objectives, functions etc., forming the environment and the factors that may affect the particular organisation concerned. Incase of a national organisation, then the countrys political, social, economical and technological environment having a bearing on the organisation as well as government regulatory environment would have to be taken note of. Study of the users specific environment At this point, it may be necessary to define in an ordely manner, the category of users whose information needs are to be identified. The Information need identifier must get himself well acquainted with the department of the individual user before conducting any actual interview with the user for the identification of his/her information needs. Most of the aspects to be covered in this study are: History of the concerned department, its objectives and functions. Organisational structure. Details of products and/ or processes of manufacture and/ or research. Details of plant, machinery, equipment, testing and other facilities. Scope of each discernible activity of the department. Information flow in the functioning of the department. Present sources of information and the channels and media used in the departments. Types of information services being used in the departments. Specific subjects on which information is being sought including type of information and kind of presentation required. Recent significant events and problems solved and the way they are solved including specific information used in solving the problems. Any other items of interest such as on going projects, training programmes etc., in the unit. Some of the sources that are to be studied for this purpose include the monthly/ quarterly/ annual reports by and on the department/ unit and its functions, minutes of meetings on and by the department/ unit, progress reports, project reports, all investigation/ review reports, performance reports, correspondence, proposals by and on the department, records of equipment, machinery and other facilities etc. It may be necessary for the INI to spend sufficient time in the users department to understand and acquaint himself with the working of the department, its organisational set up, the various activities etc., and thereby understand the situation in which the user is operating. This understanding will help the INI to easily correlate the users information needs in relation to his environment/ situation and enable the INI to grasp what the user is intending to communicate during any future interview with the user. Study of the user Users often tend to classify their wants/ interests into fragmented shopping lists, whereas their true needs may only be identified from a greater understanding of the user as a person . Therefore,emphasis should be placed on the basic needs of the individual as person . As such, it is essential that information need identifier should attempt to perceive the users problems as holistically as possible. If this is acceptable, then the expression of the information need ceases to be scientifically impersonal objective entity and becomes an expression which cannot be fully communicated apart from the user. Therefore, the next step, after the study of the users environment, is to study each of the individual users. Users are individuals. Nevertheless, in designing information systems, it is useful to classify groups of users. In relation to a specific existing or planned information facility, at least four different types of users can be distinguished .. Potential user; the one who needs information which might be provided by specific services of the information facility. Expected user; the one who is known to have the intent of using certain information services (subscriber to a specific information service such as an abstracting service). Actual User; the one who has actually used an information service regardless of whether any advantage was derived from it or not. Beneficiary; the one who derives measurable advantage from information services. Turning a potential user into an actual user and into a beneficiary should of course be the aim of planners, designers and operators of information systems. Users may be further classified into the following broad functional groups : Top Management which is responsible for policy making, strategic/ long range planning regarding mergers, acquisitions, capitals, new product lines. Scientists responsible for research, innovation, technical know how generation etc. Middle Management responsible for solving problems and making decisions required to fulfill the goals and implement policies set up by the top management. Supervisors responsible for ensuring that the products and services are produced on time, within the cost and quality level set. Operating Personnel / Technicians responsible for routine operations. Moreover, in an organisation setting, a user may play different specific work roles in performing his duties and in carrying out his functions and responsibilities. Some of the specific roles managers play, for instance include : Team Leader Liaison Monitor/ Controller Disseminator Spokesman Trouble shooter Resource allocator Resource Seeker Negotiator Decision Maker. Some of the communication activities of a manager and the percentage of events for each of the activities are given below: Receiving information, facts 27.8 % Receiving request for information, facts 8.0 % Receiving request for action 5.1 % Receiving request for approval 1.1 % Receiving opinion 0.7 % Receiving request for opinion 0.4 % Receiving applications for positions 0.4 % Receiving invitation 0.4 % Giving information, facts 12.1 % Giving opinions 0.7 % Giving instructions 0.7 % Seeking information, facts 9.2 % Requesting action 3.3 % Seeking opinion 0.4 % Checking and signing documents 6.6 % Circulating and moving documents 2.6 % Making notes and writing 1.5 % Interviewing 1.1 % Discussing interviewees 0.7 % Introducing speaker 0.4 % Participating in decision making 0.4 % Delaying response 0.4 % General discussion, meetings 12.8 % Complex events 1.8 % Others 1.5 % Further an individual may form a node in the following three directions of information flow in the organisation: Communicating down the line which is basically of five types : Giving job instructions and specific task directives. Job rationale information that is designed to produce understanding of the task and its relation to other organisational tasks. Information about organizational procedures and practices. Feedback to the subordinate about their performance. Indoctrination of goals information of an ideological character to inculcate a sense of mission. Communicating upward which may be reduced to what people say: about themselves, their performance and their problems; about others and their problems; about organisational policies and practices; and about what needs to be done and how. Horizontally communicating with colleagues in the same hierarchical level. A user, in his professional capacity, is in continuous interaction with: his culture that sets values and policies, and other influences and attitude. formal organisations such as his employing organization. invisible colleges, gate keepers as a type of reference group sufficiently distinguished by its membership criteria and communication patterns to warrant separate identification. the political system that can promote or inhibit activity and information flow. the legal and economic systems that impose legal and financial restraints on access to information. his work team, a sub system of the organisation that is distinguished because of interpersonal characteristics. himself, that is his cognitive system, motivations, attitudes etc formal information systems such as libraries and information centres. membership groups like professional societies that control information channels reference group made up of individuals having similar specialisation or interests but who are not necessarily in the same membership groups. Users who find themselves in such complex situations may have to be studied using a combination of various direct and indirect methods. Direct methods of user study are: Personal informal contacts with the user. Observing the user while at discussion with his colleagues; Survey using questionnaire Dialogue with the user while rendering information services to him/her Observing the user at his work spot (office, laboratory, factory, group meeting etc.) Interviewing the user, his supervisors, his subordinates, his personal secretary/assistant or his colleagues of co ordinate status. Observing the user while using information sources and services. Observing the user while giving a lecture/demonstration etc. Indirect methods include: Study of diary record of activities/ functions/ events maintained by the user. Study of citations received by the users publications Study of citations/ references given in the users publications Study of papers, books etc., published by the user Study of job description of the user Analysis of users response/ feedback to information services Analysis of reference queries received from the user Study of documents used by the user Analysis of the patents, designs etc., held by the user Scanning correspondence and reports prepared and received by the user Advantages of direct observation are that the information need identifier comes in direct and personal contact with the user in a dialogue, interview or discussion and that it provides an opportunity for observing the users in their normal environment. Therefore direct observation provides information on the personality and behaviour pattern of the user in different action situations. A disadvantage of the direct observation is that it so much depends on the observers own capability and adequacy in carrying out such observational studies. Inadequacies may come up in professional attainments, ability in communicating, maturity, tact and knowledge of and skill in carrying out an observational studies. It is also necessary to note that the inferences drawn from the observations may have incidence of subjective element of the observer. The analysis and inferences from indirect studies are based on the work done by the users which is based on serious thought on their part and is not merely some kind of off hand ad hoc statements.Therefore the records of users is adequate in providence of a more reliable indication of his/her subject interests, level of understanding, orientation, up to date in the subject and the skill to express ideas in writing for communication with peers. These studies also provide adequate time for analysis.The data collected is about a situation at a point in time and in a particular context which is to be extrapolated to a dynamic changing situation.Users are a living, developing beings, working in a system which itself is subjected to constant change.Few methods of study of users are discussed below: Preliminary survey of users. To begin with it is very useful to start with a survey of users.key attributes of a user may be grouped as follows: Subject interest Normal field of specialisation Specific topics of interest within the field of specialisation Subjects closely related to the above Academic background and orientation Educational background Professional background Background of research, developmental activity, management activity etc. Psychological attributes, particularly Temperament Reception and communication of ideas Attitudes towards professional team mates, colleagues, etc., in the organisation Ability to express ideas precisely Attitude to using and acquiring ability to use the tools and techniques of information services Specifically the information need identifier would need information about the user relating to the following : Foreign language competence. Types of reports both internal and external received and sent by the user Types of reports both internal and external which the user is not receiving but would like to receive Functions, activities, tasks (job description) and responsibilities (specific work roles) in the organisation; Authors and Corporate Bodies, whose works are of interest Education, training and special expertise. Membership in professional bodies Channels of communication between the user and other departments/ personnel of the organisation Outside organisations with which the user has academic or professional contacts Membership in committees, task groups Periodicals and other information services received through membership Subject and associated interests specific subjects, allied subjects Annual Reviews and other Series publications in which interested. Periodicals often containing articles of interest which are to be specifically notified Kinds of information media preferred by the user; Time most convenient to the user to receive information services Position of the user in the organization. Types of information notices/ services preferred by the user Approximate time available to the user in a day or week for reading Also information about the user may be obtained by a study of his/ her resume.Information need identifier should also carryout surveys using questionnaires for collecting such preliminary information about the users. He should fill up the questionnaire himself after following the steps of studying the subject, the organization, the specific department and the resume of the user. This would show some gaps in the resume and would help concentrate on information not available from it. A shortcoming with the questionnaire method is the low return rate. Study of Work Diary Maintained by the User Users may maintain a diary about their work for their own use. It records; important activities like filing of license applications, critical events and incidents comments on how improvement could be achieved in the organization discussions/ meetings with experts and / or with colleagues, for specific problems and their solution the consultants/ consultancy organisations preferred method of solution or probable reasons for non solution route of search for specific information, kinds of documents/ sources/ services/ channels/ media consulted and used and their usefulness procedures, techniques s/he has used and/ or has planned to use details of projects s/he is engaged in working details observations cases of problems faced results arrived at Some organisations it is mandatory that such a diary or record is maintained by each member of staff above a certain level as a part of the project routine, in a general prescribed form. Users to be studied should be asked to maintain a diary of all important events, cases of problems faced, method of solution, the specific information sources/ services/ channels/ media used and their usefulness. Also, they may be asked to record each and every event in the order of occurrence. Such a diary record, properly designed and carefully maintained can be a source of useful information on the specific topics of interest to the user.The methods and techniques s/he has used or planned to use in his work; the kinds of documents, information sources and services s/he uses extensively; the extent of time he normally spends in reading books, articles, reports etc., in discussion with colleagues, experts; and the kind of personal information services s/he prefers. Occassionally it may give some inf ormation on the persons in the organisation and outside it, with whom he usually associates himself with. Survey of information sources used The next step is to make a study of the different sources of information/ information services being used by the users. This aim of this study is to bring out the relevance of different types of sources/ services, the frequency of use, the availability/ accessibility of the sources/ services; preferences/ priority assigned to the different types of sources and services, and the relevance of record keeping in the users departments/ units 6 FORMAL INTERVIEW The next step is to have a formal interview with the user. After the stages mentioned above, the information need identifier may be in a position to draw up the relevant questions to be asked, the clarification to be sought and such other points for discussion with each individual user. This would depend upon, among other things, the category of the user, his environment and the specific roles he plays in carrying out his responsibilities. The questions would be mostly related to the specific work roles the user plays.Before having a formal interview with the user, the information need identifier, as a result of all the stages mentioned above , should prepare for each user a document giving; the types of information services required the sources and services that are available but not used the existing information sources and services in the organisation which are being used a rough estimate of a list of anticipated information needs of each uer. This estimate of draft information needs is the basic document for subsequent confirmation and modification by interviewing to confirm actual needs and to eliminate pseudo needs. Some of the data gathered will require clarification from the user. Some of the information needs identified may turn out to be temporary interests. The intended use of information has a greater bearing on the actual information required than the users discipline. therefore, the information need identifier should find out by appropriate questioning : what information for which need in which form how often/ when needed to perform which role For each specific information need in what quantity enough to read/ see/ hear in 5 minutes/ 10 / 30 minutes. with what priority very high, high, low. in what form digest, executive brief, table, graph, state of the art, trend report, original document in what media print, audio, visual presentation through graphic software what kind of information facts , opinions, view points, advice, technical details, statistical data, news, theory. to what extent of coverage exhaustive, selective, only recent, limited by specific time period; how often daily, weekly, monthly, as often as required depending on announcement/publication of such information The information need identifier should show the appropriate information service product to the user to make him express his need. The information need identifier should cross check to assess whether a need is a true need or a pseudo need. It has been found from experience that there is a tendency especially among the executives either to exaggerate their information requirements or to overlook some of them as unimportant due to certain reasons perhaps personal reasons. Often the user should be made to make specific, the value of the need in relation to his specific function /task . Thiswill aid assessing whether a need is a true need or a pseudo need. Interviewing the super ordinate and the sub ordinates may help to clarify these. The value attached to a need is an indicator of the priority that can be assigned to a need. In other words, in the interview, the information need identifier by suitable questioning of the user should delineate which needs are of high priority, which are actual, which are potential, which are distantly related, which may be dropped from and which are to be added to the forecasted needs. The value of the information need can be correlated to the value/ cost of the consequences of the use of the information supplied to satisfy the need. Priorities of information needs depend on the changes taking place from time to time in the users : Regulatory measures which affect his work either directly or indirectly affecting the whole organization Functions Responsibilities Position in the organizational structure Organizational functions and procedures affecting his work. Own priorities for various activities. To sense the changes and modifications in the information needs, their priorities and in anticipating new potential information needs; and already identified information needs converting into demands, it is necessary to attend committee/ task force/ project/ technical and other problem solving/ decision making meetings in which problems and projects are discussed of which the user is a member. It may also be necessary to attend committee meetings in areas which fall within the purview of the functions and responsibilities of the user. Feed back from information services rendered and suggestions from users about their changing interests, of the departments and of the organization as a whole would be of help. Periodic invited group discussions of users would throw much light on the changes taking place and likely to take place in future in the organization. It is to be noted that in order to have free exchange of ideas, it is better to have an appointment with users when they are free from important work. During the time of the interview, information need identifier should transact with the users tactfully; By giving examples of relevant information services and show how he can be helped in meeting his information needs. As far as possible, these examples must be from users own subject field or related fields of interest. By posing the actual problems likely to be faced by the user in the day to day activities for which information is sought and extract from them their potential information needs i.e., needs which are there but not expressed explicitly. By providing appropriate terminology to help the users enunciate their subject interests clearly and unambiguously. By using the subject profile of the organisation prepared by INI or a good schedule of classification scheme or thesaurus of relevant subjects, help the user pinpoint his subject interests precisely. By illustrating a few services which the user has already contemplated, gather opinions about different types of services required, by seeking their own ideas of services. By showing different sources of information, identify the other sources the user uses and also the most useful sources from which ideas for cost/ product improvement come. By showing the formal channels prevailing in the organization, unearth the informal modes of communication used by the user CONTINUOUS REFINEMENT AND UPDATING INFORMATION NEEDS It is a good practice to invite periodically small groups, not more than 15 persons of homogenous composition all design engineers, or all technicians / operators on a particular variety of machinery, or those doing different aspects of a particular task for discussion with information need identifier and other information service personnel about the information services provided, and the information needs, including changes in the information needs of the group. Members should be encouraged to mention in some detail about the present work they are engaged in, the problems they face, the information required and the information service likely to be of interest and help in their work, including comments on how the existing information services should be tuned/ refined to suit their particular information needs. If the discussion is conducted on proper lines such a users group meeting can combine some of the advantages of survey by questionnaire, interview and informal discussion with the users . Moreover, through these discussions the changes that are taking place and that are likely to take place in future, could be ascertained and the organisations dynamic situation could be monitored. This would help in continuous modification and up dating of information needs and tune the services to suit the changing needs. CONCLUSION Identifying a need is one thing and satisfying the need is another. The concept of information need is embedded in the studies of users, their environment, and information use. This area is one of the most amorphous areas of research in library and information science over the past four decades. In actuality, the methodology used for most studies have been found inadequate for uncovering users real needs which have been difficult to discover, measure and classify . It is hoped that the methodology discussed here, would be easy to perceive and be translatable into practice. Perhaps the methodology would become clearer and clearer as each step in it, is put into practice. Following the methodology would enhance the understanding of the scenario and help in fine tuning the procedure to be followed in particular situations to unearth real information needs. The proposed methodology is not only useful in identifying the information needs, but also information need identifier has a profound impact on finding ways and means to satisfy such needs. Simultaneously the information need identifier would discover, as a bye product, several ideas, tools, methods and tech niques of satisfying the users in meeting their information needs. In other words, if you identify the information needs of your clients this way, the documentation and information services that you would be rendering to satisfy these needs, would initiate action and bring about changes in the users, their outlook and in the organisation as a whole. REFERENCES CRONIN, Blaise. Assessing information needs. (Aslib Proceedings. 33(2); 1981; pp 40). ELLIS, David; COX, Deborah and HALL, Katherine. A comparison of the information seeking patterns of researchers in the physical and social sciences. (Journal of Documentation. 49(4); 1993; pp 356 369). HOMER, J.H. Patterns in the use of information : The right to be different. (Journal of American Society for Information Science. 1981; March; pp 103 112). SLATER, M. Information needs of social scientists : A study by desk research and interview. Boston Spa, BLRDD. 1989. (British Library Research Paper No. 60). DERVIN, B and NILAN, M. Information needs and uses. (Annual Review of Information Science and Technology. 21; 1986; pp 3 33).

Fahrenheit 451 - Symbolism Essay examples - 1350 Words

Symbolism in Fahrenheit 451 Ray Bradbury, perhaps one of the best-known science fiction, wrote the amazing novel Fahrenheit 451. The novel is about Guy Montag, a ‘fireman’ who produces fires instead of eliminating them in order to burn books (Watt 2). One night while he is walking home from work he meets a young girl who stirs up his thoughts and curiosities like no one has before. She tells him of a world where fireman put out fires instead of starting them and where people read books and think for themselves (Allen 1). At a bookhouse, a woman chooses to burn and die with her books and afterwards Montag begins to believe that there is something truly amazing in books, something so amazing that a woman would kill herself for (Allen†¦show more content†¦In an interesting thought Montag comes upon an idea about burning that states amp;quot;the sun burnt every day. It burnt time†¦So if he burnt things with the firemen and the sun burnt Time, that meant that everything burnt! One of them had to stop burningamp;quot; (141). Secondly, Fire is a greatly important element of symbolism in Fahrenheit 451. Fire consumes minds, spirits, men, ideas, and books (McNelly 3). Fire’s importance is put at the beginning of the book when a clear picture of firemen is first seen and the narrator says, quot;With his symbolic helmet numbered 451 on his stolid head, and his eyes all orange flame with the thought of what came next, he flicked the igniter and the house jumped up in a gorging fire that burned the evening sky red and yellow and blackamp;quot; (3). Fahrenheit 451 is the temperature at which books burn and is symbolically written on the firemen’s helmets, tanks, and in the firestation. Faber represents the amp;quot;quiet, nourishing flameamp;quot; of the imaginative spirit while in contrast, Beatty symbolizes the destroying function of fire (Watt 2). Fire, Montag’s reality and world, refines and purifies his mind and also gives unity and depth to the story (McNelly 3). Montag interprets his experiences in terms of fire (Watt 2). In Montag’s society the fireman’s torch has become a flame of reason (Slusser 63). Scientists also consider fire aShow MoreRelatedFahrenheit 451 - Symbolism1432 Words   |  6 PagesSymbolism in Fahrenheit 451 Ray Bradbury, perhaps one of the best-known science fiction, wrote the amazing novel Fahrenheit 451. The novel is about Guy Montag, a ‘fireman who produces fires instead of eliminating them in order to burn books (Watt 2). One night while he is walking home from work he meets a young girl who stirs up his thoughts and curiosities like no one has before. 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The protagonist of the novel, Guy Montag, is a fireman that started questioning his beliefs about love, society and mainly questioning his job as an enemy of books, and the use of fire. This essay will discuss how does Montag understands fire through the novel and how fire is presented in the book. Read MoreFahrenheit 451-Symbolism Essay645 Words   |  3 PagesThroughout English literature there are a number of authors who use symbolism to get a point across to the reader. Symbolism is a chance for the author to show the reader instead of tell. The futuristic book Fahrenheit 451 is a novel based around symbolism and ulterior meanings. Water and fire are symbols commonly used in all types of literature. These elements are especially apparent in mythology. Also, within the novel the parlor walls proved themselves to be more than what was initially apparentRead MoreSymbolism : Fahrenheit 451 By Ray Bradbury1144 Words   |  5 PagesSymbolism is a technique that literary adds meaning to stories through the use of objects or events portrayed to represent something else. The reason behind the use of symbolism is eluding something s meaning without sighting on the obvious. The in-depth analysis of the use of symbolism will feature in a short story-Fahrenheit 451 (Fenton). Fahrenh eit 451 is a science fiction artistic work of literature that makes use of symbols in the reflection of the humanity journey revived in a dystopian societyRead MoreSymbolism Of Ray Bradbury s Fahrenheit 451868 Words   |  4 PagesSymbolism in Fahrenheit 451 Ray Bradbury once stated, â€Å"I never consciously place symbolism in my writing. That would be a self-conscious exercise and self-consciousness is defeating to any creative act †¦ During a lifetime, one saves up information which collects itself around centers in the mind; these automatically become symbols on a subliminal level and need only be summoned in the heat of writing.† (The Paris Review). Bradbury’s may not have consciously placed symbolism in Fahrenheit 451,Read MoreSymbolism in Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury Essay example745 Words   |  3 PagesSymbolism is a major literary device that helps people see a book through symbols that often have a deeper meaning. A symbol is used to explain something in a different way, using images, objects, etc. instead of just saying it in words. As you search for a deeper meaning in a work of art or literature it can help you understand the authorÂ’s intentions and the deeper significance of a work. In Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury, symbols help reinforce the major themes of the book. 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It is against the law to have any book of any kind in your possession. Paul Trout says this is because books disturb people by posing questions and books

Liquid-Liquid Heat Exchange Process And Operation Of Pilot Plant

Question: Describe about the Process and Operation of Pilot Plant? Answer: Introduction and Aims Baciocchi et al. (2013) presumed that thermal conductivity and thickness influenced the overall heat transfer coefficient of the mediums. Falsanisi et al. (2010) argued that the larger coefficient make the heating process easy in transferring heat to the products from sources. A heat transfer film coefficient is the process of fluid confined in a particular vessel that outlines the flow of heat of the fluid. Apart from that, film coefficient heat exchanger divided the heat based on per unit area of the vessel. Thus, it differentiates the temperature of the fluid in the interior and surface of the wall. Mahmoud (2012) stated that film coefficient heat exchanger known as the convection coefficient from the point of view of heat exchanger. In the pilot plant, the overall heat transfer coefficient U determines the logarithmic meaning the difference of temperature. The equation of the logarithmic can helps in identifying the value of U that directly relates to the Q (the rate of heat transfer). Thermal Resistance is also an effective method of heat exchanger. It helps in calculating the overall heat transfer coefficient of the pilot plant properly. In the pilot plant, thermal resistance split works in several areas such as transfer of heat between the wall and fluid in one resistance, transfer heat in one resistance and the transfer of heat between the second fluid and wall in one resistance. McConville (2002) suggested that in order to decrease the overall heat transfer coefficient in the wall of pilot plant, need to add extra thermal resistance of surface coating. The main aims of this study are To examine the effects of flow configuration, varying liquid flow rates, addition number of tubes in the heat exchangers To identify the effects of flow configuration, varying liquid flow rates on performance s heat exchanger in pilot plant and shell side and tube pressure drops To realize the impacts as well as significance of experimental errors on the calculation of heat transfer To develop the standards procedures for process and validation of data collection regarding heat exchanger Theory 1. Heat Transfer Equation 1.1 Counter Flow heat transfer Qh = mh.Cph. (Th1 Th2) Qc = mc.Cch. (Tc2 Tc1) Where h= hot side c= cold side 1 = inlet 2 = outlet with no losses Qh = Qc If the Qh losses from the Qc then the equation will be Qh Qc Qm = (Qh + Qc) / 2 Qm = U. Am. Tlm (Here U considers the power of overall heat transfer coefficient. Apart from the lm is stand for this equation as a Logarithmic temperature) Tlm = T2 T1/ In * T2/ T1 T2 = Th2 - Tc1 T2 = Th1 Tc2 Am = Ah Ac / In * Ah/Ac (Here Ac and Ah stand for the area for the heat transfer on the cold as well as hot side respectively) 1.2 How does a heat exchanger work It is noted that a heat exchanger basically revolves around the fact that as soon as there is a temperature difference, there will be a possibility of occurring heat transfer. So, in most of the cases, it utilizes both cold stream as well as a hot stream, which are detached with the help of a thin, solid wall. In this context it is very crucial to make the wall thin as well as conductive so that heat exchange takes place. However, there is requiring ensuring that the wall must be strong enough to protect the system. Due to which copper is used here. Below is the simple flow diagram which exploring how heat transfers in a heat exchanger. Figure: flow diagram showing how heat transfers in a heat exchanger In order to describe the heat exchanger, the analysts used several components such as tank of water, thermostat, ball valves, P. C. interface, water connection, test stand, heater, etc. The properties, which depend on the quality of matter, may change as the system increases in size. The physical and the chemical residues of the system may have an effect on each other and give rise to unstable results. A good illustration of this property is surface area to liquid ratio. Suppose on a chemical scale, in a particular flask has a moderately large surface area to the liquid ratio (Reichl et al. 2014). If scaled the reaction to fit in a tank of 500 gallon, the surface area to the liquid ratio becomes minute to a great extent. Therefore the difference in the surface area to the liquid ratio, the reaction and same nature of thermodynamics changes in a deviating way. An effect in beaker can perform very differently from same reaction on a large scale process of production (Sun et al., 2008). After the collection of data from the pilot plant operation, a huge production scale capacity might be built. Some business entity still continues to control pilot plant so as to experiment concepts intended for the innovative products, operating conditions or new feedstock. The current trend is to keep the plant size small to save the costs. Reference List Baciocchi, R., Carnevale, E., Corti, A., Costa, G., Lombardi, L., Olivieri, T., Zanchi, L. and Zingaretti, D. (2013). Innovative process for biogas upgrading with CO2 storage: Results from pilot plant operation. Biomass and Bioenergy, 53, pp.128-137. Falsanisi, D., Liberti, L. and Notarnicola, M. (2010). Ultrafiltration (UF) Pilot Plant for Municipal Wastewater Reuse in Agriculture: Impact of the Operation Mode on Process Performance. Water, 2(4), pp.872-885. Mahmoud, (2012). Managing Process Hazards in Lab-Scale Pilot Plant for Safe Operation. American Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 5(1), pp.84-88. McConville, F. (2002). The pilot plant real book. Worcester, Mass.: FXM Engineering and Design. Reichl, A., Schneider, R., Ohligschlger, A., Rogalinski, T. and Hauke, S. (2014). Process Development and Scale-up for Post Combustion Carbon Capture - Validation with Pilot Plant Operation. Energy Procedia, 63, pp.6379-6392. Sun, H., Hankins, N., Azzopardi, B., Hilal, N. and Almeida, C. (2008). A pilot-plant study of the adsorptive micellar flocculation process: Optimum design and operation. Separation and Purification Technology, 62(2), pp.273-280.

Voluntary Bribery Essays - Campaign Finance In The United States

Voluntary Bribery? Political Action Committees by definition are associations of individuals who, exercising the First Amendment rights of political speech and association, advance their political and/or ideological goals by pooling their resources to make contributions and/or expenditures to affect the outcome of an election (www.pacfinder.com). The fact that corporate America determines the outcomes of our elections, influences our law makers', and has all but total control over our government has been greatly concealed from the American public. The reason for this concealment is because Superclass leaders prefer to keep the existence of and details about the extent of their class-based power out of sight. Also, the above definition does not suggest that corporations are one of these superclass powers and that they have influence over political campaigns/elections. The truth however, of their existence in this process is clearly evident to the person who is seeking it. As former president Woodrow Wilson once observed, the masters of the government of the United States are the combined capitalists and manufacturers of the U.S. (The New Class Society, Pg. 103). President Wilson's comments although correct, were frowned upon by the superclass and thusly his works and achievements have been greatly marginalized by the privileged-class-controlled mass media. This suggests that our elected officials are merely representatives of the superclass and once they act in a manner representing the working or poor-classes their power and influence is quickly undermined or outright removed. Current day political campaigns can be thought of as battles to an extent. The days of a person fighting for what he believes in are over. Times have shown the person with the most money and backers wins an election today. When we see a person on television running for a particular office, we just see him. What the vast majority of people do not see and are not allowed to see, are the smiling faces of the large corporate sponsors standing in the shadows. These sponsors are not interested in the welfare of the people nor do they believe in their candidate's ideas. These sponsors are merely interested in maintaining or increasing their influence over our society. The history of PACs dates back to the 1940's during the election years of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's unprecedented election to a third White House term. During this election President Roosevelt was given large gifts of money from the United Mine Workers of America, which helped him easily win over other less funded presidential candidates. By the time he sought a fourth term he had already had the full financial support of the UMOA however, a law had been passed to ban gifts of money from such organizations. The president of the United Mine Workers at the time was a man named John L. Lewis. Lewis sidestepped the ban by establishing the National Citizen's Political Action Committee to collect voluntary contributions from mineworkers and others. Instead of using labor union treasury funds, he used NCPAC's funds to make contributions to Roosevelt's campaign. Today, such groups are called PACs for no reason other than that was what the first one choose to call itself (www.pacfinder.com). In 1974, when Congress was debating a post-Watergate version of the Federal Election Campaign Act, Rep. George Hansen (R-Idaho) successfully attached an amendment to the measure that gave birth to explosive growth in PAC sponsorship by corporations and trade associations. The Hansen Amendment made clear that corporations and trade associations could use their treasury funds to finance the administrative and fundraising solicitation costs of a PAC, in much the same manner as labor unions had already been doing for several decades (www.pacfinder.com). There has always been an implied relationship between corporations and lawmaker decisions due to the fact that most PACs and political officials are connected and are both based in Washington, D.C. The implication is actually a reality but the superclass's second tier autonomous representatives, including lawyers and specialists are quick to suppress any hard evidence of this influence or their existence. If one was to compare the Fortune 500's list of the largest and most powerful corporations in America and the Federal Government's list of the top 100 PACs and their associated corporations, one would find the two list to be almost identical. This is no